English is the language that originally developed in England. From there, it spread to the rest of the British Isles and to Britain's overseas colonies. English is probably the third or fourth most popular world language in numbers of native speakers (322,000,000 in 1999), but the most popular second and learning language in the world. The cultural, economic, military, political and scientific importance of the United States of America and the United Kingdom for the last two centuries has given English pre-eminent status as a language of international communication. It belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.
English's closest living undoubted relative is Frisian, still spoken by approximately half a million people in the Dutch province of Friesland, in nearby areas of Germany, and on a few islands in the North Sea. Some people regard Scots as a closely related separate language from English, while others consider it an English dialect. Scots has a tradition as a separate language, as well as somewhat different grammar and vocabulary. (Some would even say that Ebonics is a separate language, but this is extremely debatable.) After Frisian, the next closest relative is the modern Low Saxon language of the eastern Netherlands and northern Germany. Other less closely related living languages include Dutch, Afrikaans, and German. Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker, as English absorbed a tremendous amount of vocabulary from French after the Norman conquest (see below).
History
English descends from the language spoken by the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain during late antiquity and the Dark Ages (it is arguable that the Danish contribution occurred as late as the early Middle Ages), although it received outside influences until much later.
The principal invading Germanic tribes were Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Their Anglo-Saxon dialects developed into Old English. Although the most commonly used words today derive from those early Anglo-Saxon roots, its vocabulary was greatly influenced over time firstly by Danish invaders who spoke Old Norse, and then, to an even greater extent, by Norman invaders who spoke French.
For over two hundred years, the Norman French rulers governed and ran the church, educational and court systems in French, and French was the language of the aristocracy. As a result, English changed from its roots to such an extent that Modern English speakers cannot understand Old English. It lost most of its word inflections and gained a great deal of French vocabulary.
By about the time of the Renaissance, the language had evolved into what is known as Middle English, which Modern English speakers can understand with a little difficulty. From the late 1400s, the language changed further into what is described as Modern English. English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, even to the present time. As a result of this history of assimilation, English today is commonly believed to have the largest vocabulary of any language in the world.
In 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary.
Historic English text samples
Old English
From Beowulf, approximately 900 CE Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum,
þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon,
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.
Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum,
monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah,
egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearð
feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad,
weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah,
oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra
Middle English
From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffry Chaucer, 14th centuryHere bygynneth the Book of the Tales of Caunterbury
Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen al the nyght with open eye-
(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages);
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages
Early modern English
From Othello by William Shakespeare, 1603Iago: Though in the trade of Warre I haue slaine men, Yet do I hold it very stuffe o'th' conscience To do no contriu'd Murder: I lacke Iniquitie Sometime to do me seruice. Nine, or ten times I had thought t'haue yerk'd him here vnder the Ribbes.
Othello: 'Tis better as it is.
Modern English
From the United States Declaration of Independence, 1776, by Thomas JeffersonIN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
English in the world
English is the first language in Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom and United States of America.
Also, English is one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (with French), Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish), Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other African languages).
It is an official language, but not native, in Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands Samoa, Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Also, English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) or Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish.
Major Dialects of English
- American English
- Australian English
- English English
- Scottish English
- Canadian English
- Hiberno-English
- Jamaican English
- Newfoundland English
- New Zealand English
- South African English
- Singapore English - sometimes called Singlish
- Malaysian English - sometimes called Manglish
These varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within English English and African American Vernacular English (AAVE) (aka Ebonics, spoken among some African-Americans).
Due to its wide use as a second language, English is spoken with many different accents, which may identify the speaker's native language. For some distinctive characteristics of certain accents, see how to tell the origin of an accent.
Phonology
English orthography is historical, not phonological orthography and diverges considerably from the spoken language. This is English's Consonantal System (including dialect sounds):
| Labial | Labio-dental | (Inter)Dental | Alveolar | Alveo-palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
| Stop | p b | t d | k g | ||||
| Fricative | f v | T D | s z | S Z | x¹ | h | |
| Affricate | tS dZ | ||||||
| Approximant | l | r | |||||
| Semi-vowel | w W² | j | |||||
| Nasal | m | n | N |
- This is a velar fricative and is found only in Scots in Gaelic loanwords such as loch (`lax)
- Voiceless w (/W/) is found in Scots and upper-class British.
See also List of Archaic English Words and Their Modern Equivalents, List of words commonly mispronounced, rhotic, singular they, Received Pronunciation, General American pronunciation, Standard Midwestern pronunciation, non-sexist language
Grammar
English grammar is based on that of its Germanic roots, though some scholars during the 1700s and 1800s attempted to impose Latin grammar upon it, with little success. All in all English is a much less inflected language than the bulk of Indo-European languages, placing more of the information in the word order. English is a slightly inflected language, retaining features like:
- Possessive (which has developed into a clitic)
- He is Alfredo's best friend. -'s
- 3rd person singular present
- Alfredo works. -s
- past tense
- Alfredo worked. -ed
- present participle/ progressive
- Alfredo is working. -ing
- past participle
- The car was stolen. -en
- Alfredo has talked to the police. -ed
- plural
- All your sigs are mine. -s
- comparative
- Alfredo is smarter than Ricky. -er
- superlative
- Alfredo has the bluest eyes. -est
Vocabulary
English isn'ted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words which often come into common usage. In addition, slang provides new meanings for old words. In fact this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made from formal and correct forms of English and contemporary usage. See also sociolinguistics.
Loanwords
From African languages| banana | (via Portuguese or Spanish ) |
| dengue | (from Swahili via Spanish ) |
From Afrikaans
| trek | |
| boorish |
From Native American languages
| alpaca | (from Aymara via Spanish) |
| cannibal | (from Caribbean, via Spanish) |
| canoe | (from Caribbean, via Spanish) |
| chocolate | (from Nahuatl, via Spanish) |
| cocaine | (from Quechua, via Spanish) |
| coyote | (from Nahuatl, via Spanish) |
| Eskimo | (from Cree) |
| hurricane | (from Caribbean, via Spanish) |
| igloo | (from Innuktitut) |
| jaguar | (from Tupi, via Portuguese) |
| kayak | (from Innuktitut) |
| moccasin | (from Algonquian languages) |
| moose | (from Algonquian languages) |
| ocelot | (from Nahuatl, via Spanish) |
| potato | (via Spanish) |
| racoon | (from Algonquian languages) |
| squaw (archaic, pejorative) | (from Cree iskwe) |
| tomato | (from Nahuatl, via Spanish) |
| wigwam | (from Algonquian languages) |
From Arabic
| alcove | (via Spanish alcoba) |
| alcohol | (via Spanish alcohol) |
| algebra | (via Spanish álgebra) |
From French Thousands of English words came from French.
From German
| pretzel | a traditionally salted and often hard bread snack. |
| stein | a German style beer glass. |
| wanderlust | a nomadic urge. |
| sauerkraut | a mixture of cabbage in brine. |
| frankfurter | a hot dog. |
| hamburger | a sandwich featuring a ground beef patty or often simply ground beef. |
From Greek Thousands of English words came from Greek. Examples include philosophy and philology. 'tele' as in telecommunications also came from Greek.
From Japanese
| judo | A wrestling sport derived from juijitsu[?]; literally "gentle way" |
| kamikaze | suicide attack. Japanese for "divine wind" |
| karaoke | |
| karate | A martial arts style; literally "empty hand" |
| origami | paper crafts |
| sake | a Japanese liquor |
| tycoon | wealthy and powerful businessperson. Japanese for big monarch |
| tsunami | tidal wave |
From Pennsylvania German (Pennsylvania Dutch)
| dunk | to dip |
From Spanish
| alligator | (from el lagarto, "the lizard") |
| canyon | (from cañon) |
| guerrilla | |
| marijuana | |
| mosquito | |
| mulatto | (from mulato) |
| siesta |
From Portuguese
| tank | (from tanque) |
Basic English is simplified for easy international use. It is used by some aircraft manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in the Far East teach it as an initial practical subset of English.
Special English (http://www.manythings.org/voa/voa.htm) is a simplied version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of 1500 words.
External links
- Ethnologue report for English (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ENG)
- A good example of the intricacies of English orthography (http://www.dcc.unicamp.br/~stolfi/PUB/misc-misc/DearestCreature.html)
- The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages (http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm)
Common misspelling and questions (FAQ)
nglish-language eglish-language enlish-language engish-language englsh-language englih-language englis-language englishlanguage english-anguage english-lnguage english-laguage english-lanuage english-langage english-languge english-languae english-languag neglish-language egnlish-language enlgish-language engilsh-language englsih-language englihs-language englis-hlanguage englishl-anguage english-alnguage english-lnaguage english-lagnuage english-lanugage english-langauge english-langugae english-languaeg english-languag eenglish-language ennglish-language engglish-language engllish-language engliish-language englissh-language englishh-language english--language english-llanguage english-laanguage english-lannguage english-langguage english-languuage english-languaage english-languagge english-languagee 3nglish-language wnglish-language snglish-language 4nglish-language dnglish-language 4nglish-language rnglish-language dnglish-language ehglish-language ebglish-language ejglish-language ejglish-language emglish-language entlish-language enflish-language envlish-language enylish-language enblish-language enylish-language enhlish-language enblish-language engoish-language engkish-language eng,ish-language engpish-language eng.ish-language engpish-language eng;ish-language eng.ish-language engl8sh-language englush-language engljsh-language engl9sh-language englksh-language engl9sh-language englosh-language englksh-language engliwh-language engliah-language englizh-language englieh-language englixh-language englieh-language englidh-language englixh-language englisy-language englisg-language englisb-language englisu-language englisn-language englisu-language englisj-language englisn-language english0language englishplanguage english[language english-oanguage english-kanguage english-,anguage english-panguage english-.anguage english-panguage english-;anguage english-.anguage english-lqnguage english-lwnguage english-lznguage english-lwnguage english-lsnguage english-lznguage english-lahguage english-labguage english-lajguage english-lajguage english-lamguage english-lantuage english-lanfuage english-lanvuage english-lanyuage english-lanbuage english-lanyuage english-lanhuage english-lanbuage english-lang7age english-langyage english-langhage english-lang8age english-langjage english-lang8age english-langiage english-langjage english-languqge english-languwge english-languzge english-languwge english-langusge english-languzge english-languate english-languafe english-languave english-languaye english-languabe english-languaye english-languahe english-languabe english-languag3 english-languagw english-languags english-languag4 english-languagd english-languag4 english-languagr english-languagd englysh-language english-languagesThey thought him narrow and close. Perhaps he was. That anti-proprietary party. But at the same time some consideration on his hands an empire, rich, fertile, and inhabited by collect from their land the purchase money and quitrents rapidly of pounds sterling, for which he was responsible to his the province, approve or reject laws in such a way that his confiscation, keep the British Crown satisfied, and see that the were kept contented. It was not an easy task even for a clear-headed man like Thomas purchase of their lands in accordance with the humane ideas of blood and the French desire to turn the savages loose upon the disputes with Connecticut, Maryland, and Virginia, which containing neither Philadelphia nor Pittsburgh. The controversy not definitely settled till the close of the Revolution. The colony westward to the Pacific Ocean and cut off the northern pursuance of what they believed to be their rights, the They were thereupon ejected by force by the proprietors of again in a petty warfare carried on for many years. In the summer Indians. The history of this Connecticut boundary dispute fills lasted throughout the colonial period; the dispute with.